COLOR MY CONVERSATION TEACHING PRINCIPLES
A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Fundamental principles guide the foundation of the CMC-3 program. They include the following: attachment based, relationship focused, curiosity inspired, and multi-sensory experiences which incorporate auditory (i.e. musical/rhythmic instructions), visual (i.e. gestural instruction), and kinesthetic (i.e. physical movement, position) learning strategies. The program initially provides a low stress – high success (i.e. errorless learning) instructional environment. It also embraces a family-centered approach, ensuring that the family is actively involved in the learning process. The CMC-3 program aims to align with the principles of the neurodivergent movement, emphasizing a client-led experience that respects and adapts to the unique needs and strengths of each individual.
The following is a review of the literature of five fundamental teaching strategies which include: errorless learning, music/rhythm, gestures, kinesthetics and attachment.
ERRORLESS LEARNING
CMC-3 is a highly adaptive program that incorporates both errorless and trial-error learning strategies within its lessons. In the initial stages of instruction, errorless teaching techniques are encouraged to build the participants’ foundational skills and confidence. As the participant gains proficiency, the program gradually introduces more trial and error activities, allowing for a natural progression of learning. Errorless learning is an effective method for ensuring that the participant will respond correctly in a learning task. For example, following initial instructions, the teacher will prompt or cue the participant which reduces the opportunity for an error to occur. Errorless learning can create a low stress – high success learning environment. In contrast, trial and error learning strategies allow participants to make initial mistakes, which are then corrected through guided feedback. Research indicates that trial and error learning can create frustration; which can result in aggression or apathy within the learning process (Weeks & Gaylord-Ross, 1981).
Research conducted by Ducharme, Folino, and DeRosie (2008) shows that errorless learning has the ability to reduce antisocial behaviors whilst promoting prosocial behaviors. In their study, eight children (five boys and three girls) aged 6-8 years, who displayed antisocial behavior and aggression in the classroom, participated in an 11-week social skills training program (Ducharme et al., 2008). Training sessions were held in the classroom by two classroom instructors with sessions being videotaped to observe peer interactions. The study monitored acquiescent behaviors, antisocial behaviors, prosocial behaviors, and clean up behaviors both before and after the intervention. The results were notable: acquiescent behaviors increased by 26%, antisocial behaviors decreased by 18.2%, prosocial behaviors increased by more than 80%, and cleanup behaviors increased by 38% (Ducharme et al., 2008). These findings underscore the potential of errorless learning to be used in creating a positive and cooperative classroom environment.
Ducharme, Padova, and Ashworth (2010) also explored the impact of errorless learning on a 7-year old boy with an intellectual disability who exhibited severe behavioral challenges at home and school, including extreme aggression, noncompliance and antisocial behavior. Before the intervention, the child’s parents frequently resorted to physical restraint to manage his difficult behaviors (Ducharme et al., 2010).The errorless learning intervention aimed to reduce the child’s negative behaviors and encourage prosocial, compliant behavior (Ducharme et al., 2010). A therapist trained the boy’s mother to implement enthusiastic praise following each compliant response and to use high-probability requests paired with positive reinforcement (Ducharme et al., 2010). Shortly after these techniques were introduced, the child became noticeably more compliant and showed a significant decrease in aggression and noncompliance, both at home and school (Ducharme et al., 2010). The intervention also led to a marked improvement in the relationship between the child and his mother (Ducharme et al., 2010). Instead of telling her to shut up and leave him alone, the child started to accept his mother’s praise and would often say, “look what I did mom” (Ducharme et al., 2010). This case highlights the effectiveness of errorless learning in transforming challenging behaviors and strengthening parent-child relationships.
Errorless learning strategies are valuable not only in classroom settings but also in other environments, such as the home, due to their potential to enhance a child’s relationships with others (Ducharme et al., 2010). Within the CMC-3 program, these strategies are incorporated into the early stages of skill acquisition to ensure low stress levels and consistently positive outcomes.
MUSICAL/RHYTHMIC INSTRUCTION
The CMC-3 program incorporates multisensory learning strategies to enhance engagement and effectiveness. For example, music and rhythmic activities are incorporated into the lessons, particularly for younger children and/or for those who would benefit from this form of instruction.
Anvari et. al (2002) identified a significant correlation between music and its impact on phonological awareness and reading development in 100 kindergarten children aged 4-5 years. Building on this, Gromko (2005) conducted a study using nursery rhymes to explore the effects of four learning conditions on the development of musical processing and phonological skills. The 100 kindergarten children were divided into four groups: music-focused, language-focused, a combination of music and language, and passive listening (control). Children in the first three groups (music only, language only, and combined music and language) participated in 40-minute sessions once a week for 10 weeks. In the first two groups, activities which were centered around either music or language, were used to supplement the nursery rhymes. The third group combined both music and language activities. The musical instruction involved active music-making and kinesthetic movements to emphasize beat, rhythm, and pitch in association with sounds and symbols. The control group, on the other hand, engaged in passive listening to the nursery rhymes for 15 minutes daily while doing exploratory activities. The study found that the first three groups showed significant improvements in phonological awareness and spelling skills. Additionally, the groups that included a musical element demonstrated enhanced verbal memory.
Researchers have explored music therapy as a valuable intervention for young children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Novenia (2019) found that the musical elements and structures used in therapy not only provide autistic children with a positive outlet for expressing and communicating their thoughts but also significantly aid in the development of nonverbal communication skills, such as body gestures, eye contact, and facial expressions. Chou et al. (2019) examined the effectiveness of music therapy for individuals with Rett Syndrome. In this study, families in the experimental group participated in a music therapy program consisting of two-hour sessions, twice weekly, over a 24-week period. The researchers found that music therapy improved the participants nonverbal communication (i.e. eye contact), communication skills, and social interactions. The participants also showed greater improvements in hand functions and breathing patterns. Furthermore, this study noted the benefits of the music therapy in lowering parental anxiety and stress.
Research has highlighted the positive effects of music on personal and social development. A study by Duffy and Fuller (2000) examined the impact of music therapy on social skills in children with moderate intellectual disabilities. The study involved two intervention programs: a music therapy social skills program (MP) and a non-music social skills control group program (NMP). Both programs targeted five key social skills: initiation, turn-taking, vocalization, imitation, and eye contact. Thirty-two children, aged 5 to 10 years, were assigned to either the MP or NMP group and participated in 30-minute sessions twice weekly for eight weeks. While both groups showed significant improvements in social skills, the children in the music therapy group exhibited notably larger gains in imitation.
Goodling (2011) conducted three studies to evaluate the benefits of social skills training supported by a music therapy model. The studies involved 45 children, aged 6 to 17 years, who participated in group-based interventions across school, residential, and after-school settings. The sessions, which focused on peer relationships and self-management, incorporated musical performance, movement, and improvisation. Significant improvements in social functioning were observed across various rating scales, suggesting the effectiveness of music therapy in enhancing social competence
In her book iGen, Dr. Twenge discusses the rising rates of mental health issues among children. Research in music therapy has shown promising results in addressing these concerns, particularly in enhancing self-image and self-awareness in young people. Whitewell (1977) found that creative participation in music not only improves self-awareness but also fosters positive self-attitudes in young children. Similarly, a study by Spychiger et al. (1993) demonstrated that increasing musical instruction in school curriculum leads to greater social cohesion, improved self-reliance, better social adjustment, and more positive attitudes among students. Additionally, Anshel and Marisi (1978) found positive results in task endurance when rhythmic properties of music were synchronized with motor performance, further highlighting the broad benefits of music therapy.
The CMC-3 program encourages the use of activities that have musical and rhythmic elements to create a pleasurable and interactive learning experiences for participants. Through song, rhyme, clapping routines and the use of gestures or signs, the participants learn key social skills teaching concepts as they actively engage in exercises with the Conversation Coach or their learning partners.
GESTURES AND NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Another key feature of the CMC-3 program is the use of gestures along with an emphasis on observing nonverbal communication (i.e. facial expressions, body gestures, body position, body posture, body proximity). The use of a formal signing system is another instructional option available to the Conversation Coach. It should be noted that the intent is not to teach a signing system. Rather it is intended to add support for the Conversation Coach who is wanting to help the children learn to watch so that they can watch to learn. The emphasis on gestures and/or the use of sign language is primarily intended for younger children or for those who are not socially motivated.
Gestures are a key component of nonverbal communication that play a crucial role in language development (Guidetti & Nicoladis, 2008). Nonverbal communication encompasses all forms of communication other than spoken language (Gregersen, 2017), and it is a fundamental aspect of our interactions. Research shows that we speak for only about 10 to 11 minutes each day, despite spending around 70% of our waking hours in social contexts (Gregersen, 2017). This underscores the importance of nonverbal communication, which constitutes nearly two-thirds of our interactions (Gregersen, 2017). Gestures are particularly significant because they provide visual clarification and support language development. Infants use gestures, such as reaching, pointing, and waving, to communicate before they acquire spoken language (Guidetti & Nicoladis, 2008). These gestures prompt responses from caregivers, reinforcing the infant’s communication efforts. Emphasizing gestures can enhance a child’s motivation to communicate and facilitate verbal language development.
Goodwyn, Acredolo, and Brown (2000) investigated the impact of gestures on verbal language development in 11-month-old infants. In their study, 103 infants were divided into a sign training group, where they learned and modeled gestures from their parents, and a control group with no gestural training. Results showed that infants in the sign training group demonstrated superior verbal communication compared to those in the control group.
Bragard and Schelstraete (2023) explored the use of gestures to support word learning in children with developmental language disorders (DLD). Thirty children, aged 5 to 10 years, participated in the study, including ten with DLD. These children were compared to age-matched peers with typical language development. The study found that children with DLD benefited from gestural support, as they showed improved performance in learning new phonological labels compared to those without gestural support.
Gestures can aid in cognitive tasks beyond language learning. For instance, using gestures can reduce cognitive load and enhance moral reasoning in children (Beaudoin-Ryan & Goldin-Meadow, 2014). The CMC-3 program encourages the use of natural nonverbal communication within its lessons. However, exaggerated gestures (i.e. big smiles, big hand movements) and/or the use of sign language, along with natural nonverbal communication, can be used to enhance the learning experience for young children or for those who are not socially motivated.
KINESTHETICS- LEARNING THROUGH MOVEMENT
The CMC-3 program integrates kinesthetic learning, allowing participants to grasp communication concepts through movement and physical engagement. By involving the body in the learning process, the program makes learning more engaging and memorable, while also catering to different learning styles. In Lancaster and Rikard’s 2002 study, kinesthetics or learning through movement is described as “active, physical involvement of students as they create, develop, express, and learn first-hand about content” (as cited in Fulginiti., 2009). Though movement is typically associated with sports, dance, or gym class in schools, it is often overlooked as an effective method for teaching academic subjects (Fulginiti, 2009).
A study done by Fulginiti (2009) looked at how effective it is to use movement and kinesthetic learning in the classroom to teach academic subjects and how movement impacted student learning and motivation. The results from this study found that adding movement to classroom activities had a positive impact on both learning and motivation. Students who were allowed to move during lessons had better overall retention of the material, understood the material more clearly and scored higher on quizzes. The movement based activities also helped students relate the lessons to their own lives and the world around them, leading to deeper and more meaningful learning experiences.
ATTACHMENT BASED – RELATIONSHIP FOCUSED APPROACH
The CMC-3 program is designed with a complete understanding of the importance of early attachment in children. It emphasizes the value of building social-emotional connections with the children and their families during the learning process. It also encourages educating parents on how to support social-emotional connections within the home environment.
Attachment is defined as “the propensity of human beings to make strong affection bonds to particular others” (Khodabakhsh, 2012). Research states that there are two dimensions of attachment. These dimensions are comfort and anxiety (Khodabakhsh, 2012). All individuals show high or low comfort in behaviors and emotions as well as high or low anxiety (Khodabakhsh, 2012).
Empathy is directly related to the quality of early attachment relationships that infants have with other individuals; especially their primary caregivers (Khodabakhsh, 2012). In his study, Khodabakhsh (2012) found that attachment styles are closely related to empathy. The two main types of attachment styles include secure attachment styles and insecure attachment styles (Khodabakhsh, 2012). University students who participated in this study were asked to complete a questionnaire to determine their attachment style (Khodabakhsh, 2012). The 370 students were then asked to complete a multidimensional questionnaire of empathy (Khodabakhsh, 2012). Results conveyed that those who had a secure attachment style were more empathetic compared to those who had an insecure attachment style (Khodabakhsh, 2012).
Attachment during childhood is crucial as it can allow children to develop a secure attachment style as well as success in forming supportive relationships (Khodabakhsh, 2012). Children can start to trust individuals who are empathetic towards them which can then cause the children to develop sensitivity and empathy towards others later in life (Khodabakhsh, 2012).
In the CMC-3 program, the focus on building social-emotional connections provides the opportunity for caregivers and educators to support children in building strong and secure attachments; which they can then use in developing supportive, safe, and trusting relationships with others. The way that parents communicate with their children has an effect on how the children learn to express themselves in their day to day life. With this in mind, the CMC-3 program focuses on providing support to parents; to give them the knowledge and social communication tools needed to facilitate social-emotional connections within their home environment.
Parisette-Sparks, Buffered and Klein (2017) examined the associations between negative parenting styles, depression, and marital satisfaction on children’s expressions of shame and guilt. They found that, out of the three self-reported parenting styles: authoritarian (unsupportive and controlling), authoritative (warm, supportive with established limits/structures), and permissive (warm with no boundaries or consequences), only the fathers permissive parenting predicted children’s shame and guilt (Parisette-Sparks et al., 2017). This study concluded that permissive parenting may have a reverse impact on children’s shame and guilt in at least two ways. Firstly, since permissive parenting ignores the misbehavior, the children were not able to develop a healthy way to respond emotionally (Parisette-Sparks et al., 2017). Secondly, since parents failed to set boundaries at a young age, the children lacked the ability to deal with conflict appropriately and had more challenges with self-regulation (Parisette-Sparks et al., 2017). The children tended to internalize their feelings when in an emotion-induced situation and blamed themselves. This study conveys the critical need to offer information and support to parents so that they know how to nurture strong emotional attachments with their children. It also conveys the need to provide practical strategies and concrete social communication learning tools for parents to use in the home to support the development of socially-emotionally healthy patterns; which they and their children can then use both in and outside of the home environment.
There is benefit in children being exposed to behavioral patterns over time so that the patterns become natural (Kramer, Caldarella, Christensen & Shatzer, 2009). Social and emotional skills are greatly influenced by the learning environment (Kramer et al., 2009). The CMC-3 program emphasizes and encourages social communication support to be implemented across settings (i.e. home, school), situations (i.e. classroom, restaurant) and with a variety of people (i.e. grandparents, friends, community).
Social and emotional development is extremely important during the early childhood years in order to prevent emotional and behavioral difficulties that may arise later in life (Kramer et al., 2009). Examples of these difficulties include misreading emotions, withdrawal, internalizing/ externalizing, and denial (Kramer et al., 2009). These emotional and behavioral difficulties could not only negatively impact academics, but can also lead to depression, school dropout, unemployment, as well as anti-social or violent behavior (Kramer et al., 2009). Research suggests that emotional and behavioral difficulties during pre-school and kindergarten linger as children continue to age (Kramer et al., 2009). There is evidence that these behaviors become tougher to control with intervention after children have reached the age of eight (Kramer et al., 2009).
Although research on social and emotional learning shows a positive outcome, few studies have looked into the impact that social and emotional learning has on younger children in kindergarten classrooms and many teachers feel as if they do not have the appropriate training in order to effectively assist children in developing strong social and emotional skills (Kramer et al., 2009). Kramer et al (2009) wanted to see the effect that a social and emotional learning program called “Strong Start” had on 67 kindergarten students. Teachers were trained and were given a one-hour introduction to the “Strong Start” curriculum before teaching lessons through the 10-week program (Kramer et al., 2009). Both parents and teachers rated childrens’ behavior on behavior rating scales twice before the program and twice following the program (Kramer et al., 2009). The “Strong Start” program placed an emphasis on developing prosocial behaviors and the prevention of internalization (Kramer et al., 2009). Topics in the program included recognizing one’s own feelings, recognizing others feelings, managing anger and anxiety, and implementing socially appropriate problem-solving strategies (Kramer et al., 2009). Following the 10-week program, the children displayed an increase in prosocial behavior (Kramer et al., 2009). They were better able to recognize and manage not only their emotions, but the emotions of their peers as well (Kramer et al., 2009).
The CMC-3 program aims to utilize social and emotional learning within the classroom in order to foster development of prosocial skills and to improve student-teacher relations.
With the continuing increase in technology and social media being placed in our children’s hands, it is our responsibility as parents, teachers, clinicians and researchers to address what changes need to be taken to support the social-emotional health of our children.
Color My Conversation-3 is one social communication tool which can be used to support the social-emotional needs of our children. Such tools which are both taught and modeled consistently over time can greatly impact a child’s ability to then emulate healthy social-emotional responses across a variety of setting and situations, and with a variety of people. Confidence and competence with these skills can do much to grow young socially-emotionally resilient leaders who can influence their communities for good.
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